Dutsi Communication

  Laws of Boolean Algebra As well as the logic symbols “0” and “1” being used to represent a digital input or output, we can also use them as constants for a permanently “Open” or “Closed” circuit or contact respectively. A set of rules or Laws of Boolean Algebra expressions have been invented to help reduce the number of logic gates needed to perform a particular logic operation resulting in a list of functions or theorems known commonly as the Laws of Boolean Algebra. Boolean Algebra is the mathematics we use to analyse digital gates and circuits. We can use these “Laws of Boolean” to both reduce and simplify a complex Boolean expression in an attempt to reduce the number of logic gates required. Boolean Algebra is therefore a system of mathematics based on logic that has its own set of rules or laws which are used to define and reduce Boolean expressions. The variables used in Boolean Algebra only have one of two possible values, a logic “0” and a logic “1” but an expression can...

 

  Code Conversion There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert code from one format to another. We'll demonstrate here the following Binary to BCD Conversion BCD to Binary Conversion BCD to Excess-3 Excess-3 to BCD Binary to BCD Conversion Steps Step 1 -- Convert the binary number to decimal. Step 2 -- Convert decimal number to BCD. Example − convert (11101)2 to BCD. Step 1 − Convert to Decimal Binary Number − 111012 Calculating Decimal Equivalent − Step Binary Number Decimal Number Step 1 111012 ((1 × 24) + (1 × 23) + (1 × 22) + (0 × 21) + (1 × 20))10 Step 2 111012 (16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10 Step 3 111012 2910 Binary Number − 111012 = Decimal Number − 2910 Step 2 − Convert to BCD Decimal Number − 2910 Calculating BCD Equivalent. Convert each digit into groups of four binary digits equivalent. Step Decimal Number Conversion Step 1 2910 00102 10012 Step 2 2910 00101001 BCD Result (11101)2 =  (00101001 )BCD BCD to Binary Co...

 Computer architecture In computer engineering, computer architecture is a set of rules and methods that describe the functionality, organization, and implementation of computer systems. Some definitions of architecture define it as describing the capabilities and programming model of a computer but not a particular implementation. Von Neumann Architecture Von Neumann architecture was first published by John von Neumann in 1945. His computer architecture design consists of a Control Unit, Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Memory Unit, Registers and Inputs/Outputs. Von Neumann architecture is based on the stored-program computer concept, where instruction data and program data are stored in the same memory.  This design is still used in most computers produced today. Central Processing Unit (CPU) The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the electronic circuit responsible for executing the instructions of a computer program. It is sometimes referred to as the microprocessor or proces...

 

  Important of cyber security Cybersecurity is of paramount importance in today's digital age for several reasons: Protection of Sensitive Data: Cybersecurity measures help safeguard sensitive information, such as personal data, financial records, intellectual property, and confidential business data. Preventing unauthorized access and data breaches is critical to maintaining privacy and preventing financial and reputational damage. Preservation of Trust: In an interconnected world, trust is essential. Cybersecurity breaches can erode trust among customers, clients, and partners. A strong cybersecurity posture demonstrates a commitment to protecting digital assets and maintaining trust with stakeholders. Financial Security: Cyberattacks can be financially devastating. The cost of recovering from a breach, paying for legal fees, compensating affected individuals, and addressing reputational damage can be exorbitant. Effective cybersecurity can mitigate these costs. Busines...

  Cybersecurity, short for "cybersecurity," is the practice of protecting computer systems, networks, devices, and data from theft, damage, unauthorized access, or any other form of cyber threat. It encompasses a wide range of technologies, processes, and practices designed to safeguard digital information and ensure the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data. Key aspects of cybersecurity include: Network Security: This involves securing computer networks, both local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks (WANs), to prevent unauthorized access, data breaches, and other cyberattacks. Information Security: This focuses on protecting sensitive data from unauthorized access, disclosure, alteration, or destruction. Encryption, access controls, and data classification are common information security measures. Endpoint Security: Protecting individual devices such as computers, smartphones, and IoT (Internet of Things) devices from malware, viruses, and oth...

  Digital Counter A Digital Counter is obtained by arranging the flip-flops. These are the applications of flip-flops. Other than counting, these are used for measuring the frequency as well as time. These are used to increase the addresses in memory. The operation of these devices depends on the single clock applied.  These are made of flip-fops as basic elements. There are two states included in the flip-flops. The high state is represented by 1 and the low state by 0. The operation of the counter can be made possible by high state-driven flip-flops. Counters consist of modes that are represented by the number of countable states, for example a mod-8 counter. In this, the number of states countable is from 000 to 111 (that is 0 to 7). Hence eight countable states name the counter as a mod-8 counter. What is Digital Counter? Definition: The circuit is designed with digital logic to obtain information about the number of events that occurred. This type of digital logic device ...

  Digital registers Introduction A Flip-flop is a 1 bit memory cell which can be used for storing the digital data. To increase the storage capacity in terms of number of bits, you can use a group of flip-flops. Such a group of flip-flops is known as a Register. The n-bit register will consist of n number of flip-flop(s) and it is capable of storing an n-bit word. The binary-data, in a register, can be transfered within itself from one flip-flop to another. A shift register is a type of register that allows such data transfers. Shift register has 4 modes of operations. Shift Registers A shift register is a piece of circuit that you will find inside a microprocessor. It is used to store and modify data. Now this is one of the simplest explanation I can give for a 2nd grade student. But if you are some one who is studying about computers, this is just not sufficient. So I will have to explain it in a bit more detail. Alright? I will be getting a bit technical here. But it is how you ...

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Binary Arithmetic Binary arithmetic is essential part of all the digital computers and many other digital system. Binary Addition Binary addition is the easiest of the processes to perform. As you'll see with the other operations below, it is essentially the same way you learnt to do addition of decimal numbers by hand (probably many years ago in your early school years). The process is actually easier with binary as we only have 2 digits to worry about, 0 and 1. The process is that we line the two numbers up (one under the other), then, starting at the far right, add each column, recording the result and possible carry as we go. Here are the possibilities: 0 + 0 = 0 1 + 0 = 1 1 + 1 = 2 which is 10 in binary which is 0 with a carry of 1 1 + 1 + 1 (carry) = 3 which is 11 in binary which is 1 with a carry of 1 The carry is involved whenever we have a result larger than 1 (which is the largest amount we may represent with a single binary digit). Adding more than two numbers...

  Binary Codes In the coding, when numbers, letters or words are represented by a specific group of symbols, it is said that the number, letter or word is being encoded. The group of symbols is called as a code. The digital data is represented, stored and transmitted as group of binary bits. This group is also called as binary code. The binary code is represented by the number as well as alphanumeric letter. Advantages of Binary Code Following is the list of advantages that binary code offers. Binary codes are suitable for the computer applications. Binary codes are suitable for the digital communications. Binary codes make the analysis and designing of digital circuits if we use the binary codes. Since only 0 & 1 are being used, implementation becomes easy. Classification of binary codes The codes are broadly categorized into following four categories. Weighted Codes Non-Weighted Codes Binary Coded Decimal Code Alphanumeric Codes Error Detecting Codes Error Corr...

  Computer System Organization A digital computer consists of an interconnected system of processors, memories, and input/output devices. Processors, memories, and input/output are key concepts and will be present at every level, so we will start to study computer architecture by looking at all three in turn. PROCESSORS The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the ‘‘brain’’ of the computer. A central processing unit (CPU) is the electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out the instructions  of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions. The computer industry has used the term “central processing unit” at least since the early 1960s.Traditionally, the term “CPU” refers to a processor, more specifically to its processing unit and control unit (CU), distinguishing these core elements of a computer from external components such as main memory and I/O circuitry. The CPU is composed o...

  Cellular Network Cellular network is an underlying technology for mobile phones, personal communication systems, wireless networking etc. The technology is developed for mobile radio telephone to replace high power transmitter/receiver systems. Cellular networks use lower power, shorter range and more transmitters for data transmission. Features of Cellular Systems Wireless Cellular Systems solves the problem of spectral congestion and increases user capacity. The features of cellular systems are as follows − Offer very high capacity in a limited spectrum. Reuse of radio channel in different cells. Enable a fixed number of channels to serve an arbitrarily large number of users by reusing the channel throughout the coverage region. Communication is always between mobile and base station (not directly between mobiles). Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels within a small geographic area called a cell. Neighboring cells are assigned different channel grou...

  Characteristics of Wireless Channel The most important characteristics of wireless channel are − Path loss Fading Interference Doppler shift In the following sections, we will discuss these channel characteristics one by one. Path Loss Path loss can be expressed as the ratio of the power of the transmitted signal to the power of the same signal received by the receiver, on a given path. It is a function of the propagation distance. Estimation of path loss is very important for designing and deploying wireless communication networks Path loss is dependent on a number of factors such as the radio frequency used and the nature of the terrain. The free space propagation model is the simplest path loss model in which there is a direct-path signal between the transmitter and the receiver, with no atmosphere attenuation or multipath components. In this model, the relationship between the transmitted power Pt and the received ower Pr is given by $$P_{r} = P_{t}G_{t}G_{r}(\frac{\lambda}{4...

  Multiple Access In any cellular system or cellular technology, it is necessary to have a scheme that enables several multiple users to gain access to it and use it simultaneously. As cellular technology has progressed different multiple access schemes have been used. They form the very core of the way in which the radio technology of the cellular system works. There are four main multiple access schemes that are used in cellular systems ranging from the very first analogue cellular technologies to those cellular technologies that are being developed for use in the future. The multiple access schemes are known as FDMA, TDMA, CDMA and OFDMA. Requirements for a multiple access scheme In any cellular system it is necessary for it to be able have a scheme whereby it can handle multiple users at any given time. There are many ways of doing this, and as cellular technology has advanced, different techniques have been used. There are a number of requirements that any multiple access sche...

HTML, which stands for Hypertext Markup Language, is the standard markup language for creating web pages. It provides the structure and content of a webpage. Here are some basic HTML elements and concepts to get you started: HTML Document Structure: Every HTML document begins with a <!DOCTYPE> declaration to specify the HTML version. For HTML5, it looks like this: <!DOCTYPE html> The HTML document is enclosed in <html> tags, with two main sections: <head> and <body>. <html> <head> <!-- Information about the document, such as title and meta tags, goes here --> </head> <body> <!-- The visible content of the web page goes here --> </body> </html> Document Metadata: The <head> section contains metadata about the document, such as the title, character encoding, and links to external resources like CSS stylesheets and JavaScript files. <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <ti...

  Wireless Application Protocol(WAP) Wireless Application Protocol or WAP is a programming model or an application environment and set of communication protocols based on the concept of the World Wide Web (WWW), and its hierarchical design is very much similar to TCP/IP protocol stack design. See the most prominent features of Wireless Application Protocol or WAP in Mobile Computing: WAP is a De-Facto standard or a protocol designed for micro-browsers, and it enables the mobile devices to interact, exchange and transmit information over the Internet. WAP is based upon the concept of the World Wide Web (WWW), and the backend functioning also remains similar to WWW, but it uses the markup language Wireless Markup Language (WML) to access the WAP services while WWW uses HTML as a markup language. WML is defined as XML 1.0 application. In 1998, some giant IT companies such as Ericson, Motorola, Nokia and Unwired Planet founded the WAP Forum to standardize the various wireless technolog...